Irony in “Top of the Food Chain” by T. Coraghessan Boyle Essay

T. Coraghessan Boyle’s â€Å"On Top of the Food Chain† is more than just a narration of a selfish person’s mistakes. The narrator’s tone is a literary element used to show man’s indifference for organisms that are of no immediate benefit or are a nuisance to them. _†The thing was, we had a little problem with the insects†¦Ã¢â‚¬ _ The narrator’s tone in â€Å"Top of the Food Chain† is quickly shown as self-centered in working for his comforts and indifferent to the havoc his choices make on the environment. Humans believe that we can solve everything that is put upon us, but there is always a catch. In this story, Mother Nature proves us that she can always be ahead of how humans perceive things. From the very first sentence, the narrator is portrayed as a self-serving person. In charge of a group bringing health care to a third-world village, his choices to improve the lives of the villagers lead to wreaking chaos on the local food chain. The improvements start by poisoning the flies. When the geckos that feed off of these flies die due to starvation, the cat population also diminishes. When the cats are gone, the rat population is left unregulated and is allowed to spread disease to the humans and ruin their crops. The narrator’s condescending tone towards these disastrous events is the most significant factor that Boyle uses to develop his theme. The narrator assumes he is at the top of the food chain, and he has no problem killing off the smaller species. However, the narrator is too indifferent to realize that by hurting the lower members of the food chain, he has hurt himself. This is what shows the true irony in the story. The narrator did something that he believes is good for him, but instead it ends up being entirely the opposite of it. The story reflects that humans can do immoral things, without thinking well of the consequences and the effect it is going to have on others. â€Å"Top of the Food Chain† is ironic since Mother Nature got back at all of the selfishness that was portrayed in the story. Global Warming is a great example of how nature can get back to humans because of our own selfish actions. Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth’s atmosphere in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. The release of carbon dioxide damages the atmosphere, which cause drastic changes in the climate. However, his tone following the severe circumstances that played out in the story implies that he simply does not care about anything other then what he wants. The narrator’s arrogance and belief that he can do what ever he wants without hurting himself reflects his idea that he is Top of the Food Chain. Unfortunately, he learns the hard way that his selfish actions turn around and hurt him in the end, which ends up being ironic. T. Coraghessan Boyle demonstrated us that nature can always get back to humans despite of whatever we do; selfish or unselfish.

Fool Chapter 10

TEN ALL YOUR DREAD PLEASURES The sky threatened a dismal dawn as we reached Castle Albany. The drawbridge was up. â€Å"Who goes there?† shouted the sentry. â€Å"‘Tis Lear's fool, Pocket, and his man at arms, Caius.† Caius is the name the witches gave Kent to use to bind his disguise. They'd cast a glamour on him: his beard and hair were now jet black, as if by nature, not soot, his face lean and weathered, only his eyes, as brown and gentle as a moo cow's, showed the real Kent. I advised him to pull down the wide brim of his hat should we encounter old acquaintances. â€Å"Where in bloody hell have you been?† asked the sentry. He signaled and the bridge ground down. â€Å"The old king's nearly torn the county apart looking for you. Accused our lady of tying a rock to you and casting you in the North Sea, he did.† â€Å"Seems a spot o' bother. I must have grown in her esteem. Just last night she was only going to hang me.† â€Å"Last night? You drunken sot, we've been looking for you for a month.† I looked at Kent and he at me, then we at the sentry. â€Å"A month?† â€Å"Bloody witches,† said Kent under his breath. â€Å"If you turn up we're to take you to our lady immediately,† said the sentry. â€Å"Oh, please do, gentle guard, your lady does so love seeing me at first light.† The sentry scratched his beard and seemed to be thinking. â€Å"Well spoken, fool. Perhaps you lot could do with some breakfast and a wash-up before I take you to my lady.† The drawbridge thumped into place. I led Kent across, and the sentry met us by the inner gate. â€Å"Beggin' your pardon, sir,† the sentry said, directing his speech to Kent. â€Å"You wouldn't mind waiting until eight bells to reveal the fool's return, would you?† â€Å"That when you're off watch, lad?† â€Å"Aye, sir. I'm not sure I want to be the bearer of the joyous news of the wayward fool's arrival. The king's knights have been raising rabble round the castle for a fortnight and I've heard our lady cursing the Black Fool as part of the cause.† â€Å"Blamed even in my absence?† said I. â€Å"I told you, Caius, she adores me.† Kent patted the sentry on the shoulder. â€Å"We'll escort ourselves, lad, and tell your lady we came through the gate with the merchants in the morning. Now, back to your post.† â€Å"Thank you, good sir. But for your rough clothes, I'd take you for a gentleman.† â€Å"But for my clothes, I'd be one,† said Kent, his grin a dazzle amid his newly-black beard. â€Å"Oh, for fuck's sake, would you two just have a gobble on each other's knob and be done with it,† said I. The two soldiers leapt back as if each was on fire. â€Å"Sorry, just having you on,† said I, as I breezed by them and into the castle. â€Å"You poofters are such a sensitive lot.† â€Å"I'm not a poofter,† said Kent as we approached Goneril's chambers. Midmorning. The time in between allowed us to eat, wash, do some writing, and ascertain that we had, indeed, been gone for over a month, despite it seeming only overnight to us. Perhaps that was the hags' payment? To extract a month from our lives in exchange for the spells, potions, and prognostication – it seemed a fair price, but bloody complicated to explain. Oswald sat at a scribe's desk outside the duchess's chambers. I laughed and wagged Jones under his nose. â€Å"Still guarding the door like a common footman, then, Oswald? Oh, the years have been good to you.† Oswald wore only a dagger at his belt, no sword, but his hand fell to it as he stood. Kent dropped his hand to his sword and shook his head gravely. Oswald sat back down on his stool. â€Å"I'll have you know that I'm both steward and chamberlain, as well as trusted adviser to the duchess.† â€Å"A veritable quiver of titles she's given you to sling. Tell me, do you still answer to toady and catch-fart, or are those titles only honorary now?† â€Å"All better than common fool,† Oswald spat. â€Å"True, I am a fool, and also true, I am common, but I am no common fool, catch-fart. I am the Black Fool, I have been sent for, and I shall be given entry to your lady's chambers, while you, fool, sit by the door. Announce me.† I believe Oswald growled then. A new trick he'd learned since the old days. He'd always tried to cast my title as an insult, and boiled that I took it as a tribute. Would he ever understand that he found favor with Goneril not because of his groveling or devotion, but because he was so easily humiliated? Good, I suppose, that he'd learned to growl, beaten down dog that he was. He stormed through the heavy door, then returned a minute later. He would not look me in the eye. â€Å"My lady will see you now,† he said. â€Å"But only you. This ruffian can wait in the kitchen.† â€Å"Wait here, ruffian,† said I to Kent. â€Å"And make some effort not to bugger poor Oswald here, no matter how he should beg for it.† â€Å"I'm not a poofter,† said Kent. â€Å"Not with this villain, you're not,† said I. â€Å"His bum is property of the princess.† â€Å"I'll see you hanged, fool,† said Oswald. â€Å"Aroused by the thought, are you, Oswald? No matter, you'll not have my ruffian. Adieu.† Then I was through the doors, and into Goneril's chambers. Goneril sat to the back of a great, round room. Her quarters were housed in a full tower of the castle. Three floors: this hall for meeting and business, another floor above it would have rooms for her ladies, her wardrobe, bathing and dressing, the top would be where she slept and played, if she still played. â€Å"Do you still play, pumpkin?† I asked. I danced a tight-stepped jig and bowed. Goneril waved her ladies away. â€Å"Pocket, I'll have you – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, I know, hanged at dawn, head on a pike, guts for garters, drawn and quartered, impaled, disemboweled, beaten, and made into bangers and mash – all your dread pleasures visited on me with glorious cruelty – all stipulated, lady – duly noted and taken as truth. Now, how may a humble fool serve before his hour of doom descends?† She twisted up her lip as if to snarl, then burst out laughing and quickly looked around to make sure that no one saw her. â€Å"I will, you know – you horrible, wicked little man.† â€Å"Wicked? Moi?† said I in perfect fucking French. â€Å"Tell no one,† she said. It had always been that way with Goneril. Her â€Å"tell no one,† however, applied only to me, not to her, I had found out. â€Å"Pocket,† she once said, brushing her red-gold hair near a window, where it caught the sun and seemed to shine as if from within. She was perhaps seventeen then, and had gotten in the habit of calling me to her chambers several times a week and questioning me mercilessly. â€Å"Pocket, I am to be married soon, and I am mystified by man bits. I've heard them described, but that's not helping.† â€Å"Ask your nurse. Isn't she supposed to teach you about such things?† â€Å"Auntie's a nun, and married to Jesus. A virgin.† â€Å"You don't say? She went to the wrong bloody convent, then.† â€Å"I need to talk to a man, but not a proper man. You are like one of those fellows that Saracens have look over their harems.† â€Å"A eunuch?† â€Å"See, you are worldly and know of things. I need to see your willie.† â€Å"Pardon? What? Why?† â€Å"Because I've never seen one, and I don't want to seem naà ¯ve on my wedding night when the depraved brute ravages me.† â€Å"How do you know he's a depraved brute?† â€Å"Auntie told me. All men are. Now, out with your willie, fool.† â€Å"Why my willie? There's willies aplenty you can look at. What about Oswald? He may even have one, or knows where you can get hold of one, I'll wager.† (Oswald was her footman then.) â€Å"I know, but this is my first, and yours will be small and not so frightening. It's like when I was learning to ride, and first father gave me a pony, but then, as I got older†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"All right, then, shut up. Here.† â€Å"Oh, would you look at that.† â€Å"What?† â€Å"That's it, then?† â€Å"Yes. What?† â€Å"Nothing really to be afraid of then, was there? I don't know what all the fuss is about. It's rather pitiful if you ask me.† â€Å"It is not.† â€Å"Are they all this small?† â€Å"Most are smaller, in fact.† â€Å"May I touch it?† â€Å"If you feel you must.† â€Å"Well, would you look at that.† â€Å"See, now you've angered it.† â€Å"Where in God's name have you been?† she said. â€Å"Father's been a madman looking for you. He and his captain have gone out on patrol every day and well into the evening, leaving the rest of his knights to wreak havoc on the castle. My lord has sent soldiers as far as Edinburgh asking after you. I should have you drowned for all the worry you've caused.† â€Å"You did miss me, didn't you?† I cradled the silk purse at my belt, wondering when best to spring the spell. And once she was bewitched, how exactly would I use the power? â€Å"He was supposed to be in Regan's care, but by the time he moves his bloody hundred knights all the way to Cornwall it will be my turn again. I can't abide the rabble in my palace.† â€Å"What does Lord Albany say?† â€Å"He says what I tell him to say. It's all intolerable.† â€Å"Gloucester,† said I, offering the very model of a non sequitur wrapped in an enigma. â€Å"Gloucester?† asked the duchess. â€Å"The king's good friend is there. It's mid-way between here and Cornwall, and the Earl of Gloucester daren't deny the request of the dukes of both Albany and Cornwall. You wouldn't be leaving the king without care, yet you wouldn't have him underfoot, either.† With the witches' warning about Drool in danger there, I was determined for all the drama to descend on Gloucester. I sat down on the floor near her feet, held Jones across my knees, and waited, both I and the puppet wearing jolly grins. â€Å"Gloucester†¦Ã¢â‚¬  said Goneril, letting a bit of a smile seep out. She really could be lovely when she forgot she was cruel. â€Å"Gloucester,† said Jones, â€Å"the dog's bollocks of western bloody Blighty.† â€Å"Do you think he'll agree to it? It's not how he laid out his legacy.† â€Å"He won't agree to Gloucester, but he'll agree to go to Regan's by way of Gloucester. The rest will be up to your sister.† Should I have felt myself a traitor? No, the old man brought this on himself. â€Å"But if he doesn't agree, and he has all these men?† She looked me in the eye now. â€Å"It's too much power in the hands of the feeble.† â€Å"And yet, he had all the power of the kingdom not two months ago.† â€Å"You've not seen him, Pocket. The legacy and banishment of Cordelia and Kent was just the beginning. Since you went away he's gotten worse. He searches for you, he hunts, he rails about his days as a soldier of Christ one minute, then calls to the gods of Nature the next. With a fighting force of that size – if he should feel that we've betrayed him – â€Å" â€Å"Take them,† said I. â€Å"What? I couldn't.† â€Å"You have seen my apprentice, Drool? He eats with his hands or with a spoon, we dare not let him have a knife or fork, lest the points imperil all.† â€Å"Don't be obtuse, Pocket. What of Father's knights?† â€Å"You pay them? Take them. For his own good. Lear with his train of knights is like a child running with a sword. Are you cruel to relieve him of deadly force, when he is neither strong enough, nor wise enough to wield it? Tell Lear he must dismiss fifty of his knights and their attendants and keep them here. Tell him they will be at his beck and call when he is in residence.† â€Å"Fifty? Just fifty?† â€Å"You must leave some for your sister. Send Oswald to Cornwall with your plan. Have Regan and Cornwall make haste to Gloucester so they are there upon Lear's arrival. Perhaps they can bring Gloucester into the fold. With Lear's knights dismissed, the two whitebeards can reminisce about their glory days and crawl together to the grave in peaceful nostalgia.† â€Å"Yes!† Goneril was becoming breathless now, excited. I'd seen it before. It wasn't always a good sign. â€Å"Quickly,† said I, â€Å"send Oswald to Regan while the sun is high.† â€Å"No!† Goneril sat forward quickly, her bosom nearly spilling out of her gown, which captured my attention more than her fingernails digging into my arm. â€Å"What?† said I, the bells of my coxcomb but a finger's breath from jingling her dcolletage.[30] â€Å"There is no peace for Lear in Gloucester. Haven't you heard? The earl's son Edgar is a traitor.† Had I heard? Had I heard? Of course, the bastard's plan was afoot. â€Å"Of course, lady, where do you think I've been?† â€Å"You've been all the way to Gloucester?† She was panting now. â€Å"Aye. And back. I've brought you something.† â€Å"A present?† She showed the delighted, wide grey-green eyes she'd had when she was a girl. â€Å"Perhaps I won't hang you, but punishment is due you, Pocket.† Then the lady grabbed me and pulled me across her lap, face-down. Jones rolled to the floor beside me. â€Å"Lady, perhaps – â€Å" Smack! â€Å"There, fool, I've hit it. Hit it. Hit it. Hit it. So give it. Give it. Give it.† A smack with every iamb.[31] â€Å"Bloody hell, you insane tart!† I squirmed. My ass burned with her handprint. Smack! â€Å"Oh good God!† said Goneril. â€Å"Yes!† She wiggled under me now. Smack! â€Å"Ouch! It's a letter! A letter,† said I. â€Å"I'll see your little bum as red as a rose!† Smack! I squirmed in her lap, turned, grabbed her bosoms and pulled myself upright until I was sitting in her lap. â€Å"Here.† I pulled the sealed parchment out of my jerkin and held it out. â€Å"Not yet!† said she, trying to roll me over and get back to smacking my bum. She honked my codpiece. â€Å"You honked my codpiece.† â€Å"Aye, give it up, fool.† She tried to get a hand under my codpiece. I reached into the silk purse and retrieved one of the puffballs as I tried to keep my manhood out of her grasp. I heard a door open. â€Å"Surrender the willie!† said the duchess. She had it then, there was nothing I could do. I squoze the puffball under her nose. â€Å"It's from Edmund of Gloucester,† said I. â€Å"Milady?† said Oswald, who was standing in the doorway. â€Å"Let us down, pumpkin,† said I. â€Å"The catch-fart needs his task set.† It all smacked of history. The game had progressed further that first day, when Oswald first interrupted us, all those years ago, but it had begun, as always, with one of Goneril's query sessions. â€Å"Pocket,† said she, â€Å"since you were raised in an abbey, I should think you know much about punishment.† â€Å"Aye, lady. I had my share, and it didn't end there. I still endure an inquisition almost daily in these very chambers.† â€Å"Gentle Pocket, surely you jest?† â€Å"That is part of the job, mum.† She stood then, and dismissed the ladies from her solar with a minor tantrum. When they were gone she said, â€Å"I've never been punished.† â€Å"Aye, lady, well, you're Christian, there's always time.† I'd left the Church with a curse after they walled up my anchoress and I was leaning heavily pagan at the time. â€Å"No one is allowed to strike me, so there's always been a girl to take my punishment for me. My spankings.† â€Å"Aye, mum, as it should be. Spare the royal withers and all.† â€Å"And I feel funny about it. Just last week I mentioned during mass that Regan might be a bit of a cunt, and my whipping girl was soundly spanked for it.† â€Å"Might as well have whipped her for your calling the sky blue, eh? A beating for talking truth, of course you felt funny about it.† â€Å"Not that kind of funny, Pocket. Funny like when you taught me about the little man in the boat.† It had been a verbal lesson only, shortly after she'd insisted I teach her about manly bits. But it had kept her amused, on and off, for a fortnight. â€Å"Oh, of course,† said I. â€Å"Funny.† â€Å"I need to be spanked,† said Goneril. â€Å"A constant, I'd agree, lady, but again we're declaring the sky blue, aren't we?† â€Å"I want to be spanked.† â€Å"Oh,† said I, eloquent and quick-witted rascal that I am. â€Å"That's different.† â€Å"By you,† said the Princess. â€Å"Fuckstockings,† I thus declared my doom. Well, by the time Oswald came into the room that first time, both the princess and I were as red-bottomed as Barbary monkeys, quite naked (except for my hat, which Goneril had donned) and administering rhythmically to each other's front sides. Oswald was somewhat less than discreet about it all. â€Å"Alarm! Alarm! My lady is ravaged by a fool! Alarm!† said Oswald, fleeing from the room, to raise the alarm through the castle. I caught up to Oswald as he entered the great hall, where Lear was sitting on his throne, Regan sitting at his feet to one side, doing needlepoint, Cordelia at the other, playing with a doll. â€Å"The fool has violated the princess!† Oswald announced. â€Å"Pocket!† said Cordelia, dropping her doll and running to my side, sporting a great, goofy grin. She was perhaps eight then. Oswald stepped in front of me. â€Å"I found the fool rutting the princess Goneril like a rapacious goat, sire.† â€Å"‘Tis not true, nuncle,† said I. â€Å"I was called to the lady's solar this morning only to jest her out of a morning funk, which can be smelt upon her breath if you have doubts.† At that point Goneril came running into the room, trying to arrange her skirts as she moved. She stopped beside me and curtsied before her father. She was breathless, barefoot, and one breast peeked Cyclopean out the bodice of her gown. I snatched my coxcomb off her head with a jingle and concealed it behind my back. â€Å"There, fresh as a flower,† said I. â€Å"Hello, sister,† said Cordelia. â€Å"Morning, lamb,† said Goneril, blindfolding the pink-eyed Cyclops with a quick tuck. Lear scratched his beard and glared at his eldest daughter. â€Å"What ho, daughter,† said he. â€Å"Hast thou shagged a fool?† â€Å"Methinks any wench who shags a man hath shagged a fool, Father.† â€Å"That was a distinct no,† said I. â€Å"What is shagged?† asked Cordelia. â€Å"I saw it,† said Oswald. â€Å"Shag a man and shag a fool, one is the same as another,† said Goneril. â€Å"But this morning I have your Fool shagged, righteous and rowdy. I bonked him until he cried out for gods and horses to pull me off.† What was this? Was she hoping for more punishment? â€Å"That is so,† said Oswald. â€Å"I heard the call.† â€Å"Shagged, shagged, shagged!† said Goneril. â€Å"Oh, what is this I feel? Tiny bastard fools stirring in my womb. I can hear their tiny bells.† â€Å"You lying tart,† said I. â€Å"A fool is no more born with bells than a princess with fangs, both must be earned.† Lear said, â€Å"If that were true, Pocket, I'd have a halberd run up your bum.† â€Å"You can't kill Pocket,† said Cordelia. â€Å"I'll need him to cheer me when I'm visited by the red curse, and a horrible melancholy comes over me,† said Cordelia. â€Å"What are you on about, child?† said I. â€Å"All women get it,† said Cordelia. â€Å"They must be punished for Eve's treachery in the garden of evil. Nurse says it makes you ever so miserable.† I patted the child's head. â€Å"For fuck's sake, sire, you've got to get the girls some teachers who aren't nuns.† â€Å"I should be punished!† said Goneril. â€Å"I've had my curse for simply months,† said Regan, not even bothering to look up from her needlepoint. â€Å"I find that if I go to the dungeon and have some prisoners tortured I feel better.† â€Å"No, I want my Pocket,† said Cordelia, starting to whine now. â€Å"You can't have him,† said Goneril. â€Å"He's to be punished, too. After what he's done.† Oswald bowed for no particular reason. â€Å"May I suggest his head on a pike on the London Bridge, sire, to discourage any more debauchery?† â€Å"Silence!† said Lear, standing. He came down the steps, walked past Oswald, who fell to his knees, and stood before me. He put his hand on Cordelia's head. The old king locked his hawk's gaze upon me. â€Å"She didn't speak for three years before you came,† he said. â€Å"Aye, sire,† said I, looking down. He turned to Goneril. â€Å"Go to your quarters. Have your nurse tend to your illusions. She will see that there is no issue from it.† â€Å"But, Father, the fool and I – â€Å" â€Å"Nonsense, you're a maid,† said Lear. â€Å"We have agreed to deliver you thus to the Duke of Albany and so it is true.† â€Å"Sire, the lady has been violated,† said Oswald, desperate now. â€Å"Guards! Take Oswald to the bailey and flog him twenty lashes for lying.† â€Å"But, sire!† Oswald squirmed as two guards seized his arms. â€Å"Twenty lashes to show my mercy! Another word of this, ever, and your head will decorate London Bridge.† We watched, stunned, as the guards dragged Oswald away, the unctuous footman weeping and red-faced from trying to hold his tongue. â€Å"May I go watch?† Goneril asked. â€Å"Go,† Lear said. â€Å"Then to your nurse.† Regan was on her feet now and had skipped to her father's side. She looked at him hopefully, up on her toes, clapping her hands lightly in anticipation. â€Å"Yes, go,† said the king. â€Å"But you may only watch.† Regan streamed out of the hall after her older sister, her raven hair flying behind her like a dark comet. â€Å"You're my fool, Pocket,† said Cordelia, taking my hand. â€Å"Come, help me. I'm teaching Dolly to speak French.† The little princess led me away. The old king watched us go without another word, one white eyebrow raised and his hawk eye burning under it like a distant frozen star.

Reading averages for school samples serving K-2 Essay

The sample in Table 1 was uncharacteristic of the all three samples. Grade two MCT reading results for the 2005 school year demonstrated lower reading averages in school one which had a lower percentage of impoverished and non-white students. This was not the case in sample two and three. In order to validate these results, the 2005 reading scores were compared to those of 2004 and 2003. As demonstrated in Table 1, school two has consistently scored lower than school one; however, the reading averages for both schools only vary approximately five percent between the years of 2003 and 2005. This is not enough of a variance to determine if ethnic background is a major indication of the difference between reading proficiencies. The researcher also considered class size (FTE) as a factor in the levels of reading achievement. The amount of students per teacher (FTE) however did not appear to have any influence on the reading proficiency levels of schools one and two since the FTE percentage was the same. Table 1 Sample One: Reading Averages for K-2 Schools (Grade 2) ______________________________________________________________________ Reading Impoverished Ethnicity Three Year FTE Average Students (SES) nonwhite Average ______________________________________________________________________ School 1 93 80 54 ~94 15 School 2 92 74 52 ~89 15 ______________________________________________________________________ Note. The state second grade reading average for Mississippi in 2005 was eighty-eight percent. Appendix B Reading Averages for School Samples Serving K-3 Second grade MCT reading averages for the two sample schools differed greatly for the 2005 school year. School 1A demonstrated a much lower second grade reading proficiency, as well as a higher SES. In contrast, school 2A had a low SES percentage and higher test results. The percentage of non-white students was close between the two schools, the highest however was found in school 2A. The FTE in schools one and two differed slightly with school 2A having an average of seventeen students per teacher versus fifteen students per teacher in school 1A. In order to validate the MCT results, the 2005 reading scores were compared to those of 2004 and 2003. The three year average of second grade MCT scores demonstrates that school 2A has consistently had higher test scores than school 1A. This sample demonstrates that the only probable influence on the MCT scores, and reading proficiency in general would be the SES percentage. Table 2 Sample Two: Reading Averages for K-3 Schools Grades 2 & 3 ______________________________________________________________________ Reading Impoverished Ethnicity Three Year FTE Average Students (SES) nonwhite Average ______________________________________________________________________ 2nd 3rd 2nd 3rd _____________ ____________ School 1A 79 75 94 51 80 ~75 15 School 2A 92 98 73 54 ~96 ~95 17 ______________________________________________________________________ Note. The state second grade reading average for Mississippi in 2005 was eighty-eight percent. The third grade reading average for Mississippi was eighty-four percent. Appendix C Reading Averages for School Samples Serving K-5 The following table demonstrates the reading proficiency in the school samples serving kindergarten through fifth grade. The initial sample had results which were very similar and therefore were difficult to compare, thus the researcher investigated the MCT results of another school. As the reader can see from Table 3, there is a drastic difference between schools 1B and 2B and schools 3B and 4B. The percentage of nonwhite students is similar between all four schools, indicating that ethnicity was not a crucial factor in the results of the MCTs. A major indicator of the differences in MCT scores was the SES percentage. In particular, the schools with the highest SES, the higher percentage of impoverished students, performed drastically lower than the schools with a lower SES. This has been a consistent trend over the past three years in all the schools in the sample. The FTE was seventeen for all except one of the four schools. This could indicate that the higher students-per-teacher ratio did not have an influence on the MCT reading results. Table 3 Reading Averages for K-5 Schools Grades 2 & 3. Reading Impoverished Ethnicity Three Year FTE Average Students (SES) nonwhite Average ______________________________________________________________________ 2nd 3rd 2nd 3rd _____________ ____________ School 1B 91 95 53 54 ~91 97 17 School 2B 93 96 57 53 95 97 17 School 3B 67 77 99 52 ~70 81 15 School 4B 69 77 91 53 ~69 ~72 17 ______________________________________________________________________ Note. The state second grade reading average for Mississippi in 2005 was eighty-eight percent. The third grade reading average for Mississippi was eighty-four percent.

Evaluate the formal mechanism whereby law is changed Essay

Evaluate the formal mechanism whereby law is changed - Essay Example One source of laws in the U.K. is the Parliament which gets bills passed through parliament and transformed into law – these are known as statute laws. Another source of law is common law, which comprises a body of law that has been developed over several years on the basis of judgments given in the courts in previous years – this is known as common law.1 Constitutional law in the UK is based upon constitutional conventions, which may not have statutory authority but do have binding force, much like judicial precedent.2 Laws are made by Parliament, where an MP or Lord can introduce a bill. When a bill is passed, it becomes an Act of Parliament and has statutory force. The process of getting a bill passed through the U.K. Parliament and being transformed into law is a long process3. Bills are drafted by lawyers at the Parliamentary Council Office and may be preceded by Green or White Papers.4 Before the actual drafting of a bill, the Government initiates a period of consultation with experts and the draft of the provisions of the to-be bill are made available to concerned members of the public and to organizations so that they can propose their suggestions. Issues raised in Green and White papers may be debated in Parliament before a bill is drawn up. Therefore, when a bill is presented in Parliament, it is no longer a rough draft but a polished document. A bill in Parliament passes through seven different stages before it becomes law5. A bill originates in the House of Commons, where any member may propose it. The First reading is the stage where the title of the Bill is read out in Parliament and copies are printed and circulated. The next is the Second Reading stage where the House debates upon the principles and points contained in the bill. At the Committee stage, the House examines the Bill in detail subjecting it to a line by line scrutiny and making necessary amendments so that its language will be

Societies under Shogun RuleThe Ming & Qing Essay

Societies under Shogun RuleThe Ming & Qing - Essay Example This period, which started in 1368 until 1644, is marked by the decline of the decadent feudal system and the emergence of the embryonic capitalism in China. However, Japan’s shogun period was part of the early feudal system that would dominate Japan for more than 700 years. (Morgan 2003, 42) As both Ming/Qing and the Shogun societies were established as feudal societies above all, therefore, they share many characteristics. For instance, both had governments and rulers who enforced control over a highly fragmented society. The shogunate in Japan imposed guidelines for the creation and preservation of a stable national structure. This was achieved by implementing a highly hierarchical society, wherein the primary morality is based upon public rapport between master and subordinate. (Ratti & Westbrook 1991, 62) Such perspective determined the shape and functionality of the major social organizations of the shogunate societies. To illustrate: one of the rules/norms in the Japanese society then was that there was no more despicable crime than that of rebellion against a master. Because of this hierarchical social structure, the shogun was able to elevate the social structure which sealed the subjects of the nation into classes according to a vertical order of pragmatic impo rtance drawing heavily upon the military character and strength of the warriors to whom all other subjects were subordinated. The social pyramid follows this structure with the shogun and his class at the top. From 1615 onward, laws specifically determining the legal positions of and functions of the imperial court and its aristocratic families (Kuge sho-hatto), of the military class (Buke Sho-hatto), of religious orders (Jin-hatto), of the farmers (Goson-hatto), of commoners in Edo and, by analogy, in every town (Edo-machiju-sadame) were issued by the military government of the Tokugawa shoguns.

Business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Business strategy - Essay Example To start with, political and legal factors such as government instability, taxation law, legislation law, employment law, safety regulation, and foreign policy regulation. It is already been observed that future political decisions, such as alteration to taxes, will affects the trade of these retail businesses. As this is not enough, the retailers have found themselves following safety regulation policies (Carpenter, 2011:74). The report released by Reuters Business Insight shows that retail businesses continue to grow, but economic challenges seem to heighten up. The records on inflation rates, unemployment ratios, collapse of the global economy have characterized the industry. The Reuters have narrowed this trend as resulting in worldwide change in trade economies. The same conclusions carry the load of blame for the resultant changes in the retail industry. Notably, the financial instability affected sales of expensive product and consumer spending rate cut down. During recession, according to Euro monitor Market Research, inflation is inevitable hence affecting the trend in market prices of goods (Amato and Amato, 2012:436). Social factors still pose as a challenge to the Trade Industry. According to Reuters Business Insight, population statistics, lifestyle changes, consumer trends, and income distribution ratings have all influenced the Retail Industry. Even though the inclusion of technology comes as a boost in Today’s world, it has influenced the modalities of Retail Industry. The speed of technology, use of the internet, and innovation of new technologies in everyday business world create a challenge to the Retail Business. This has affected the supply chain since the promotion, and supply chain management links innovative come too quick to some retailers. Majority of them though offer their products through online (Newman & Cullen, 2002:120) Moreover, environmental factors hamper the development of these Retail Industries. Through company repor ts, the issues related to sustainability, environmental protections, desertification, and recycling impede their progress. Competitive Environment The internal competition in the retail industry is inevitable given the existing market and foreseeable innovations. The diversification of the market has rendered it so competitive, and this has seen the installed independent retailers overpowered by the continual rise of chain stores. In order to reach a wide variety of customers, the retailers have resulted in stocking large in these chain stores. This creates a barrier for the beginners. The industry is mature enough in terms of the industry life cycle making it impossible for fresh entrance to survive with the already existing stores. In addition, the power of suppliers has created a relevant competition, especially the bargaining power between retailers and suppliers on prices and supply. The probability of existing retailers taking more from existing and new suppliers is much possi ble as you compare this with any new vendor. Suppliers can easily establish links with existing product manufactures leaving an open chance to the power of buyers on the same product. Because of available alternatives, the buyer is able to go for the best available alternative. This results from standardization and undifferentiated products in the markets leading to lowering of products (LOUIS and Christie, 2012:438). Substitution of product is another way through which competition has entered

Partition of India and how Its Shaped Modern Day India Essay

Partition of India and how Its Shaped Modern Day India - Essay Example In order to avoid that Britain deliberately divide India based on religion. Thus Muslim dominated Pakistan and Hindu dominated India were formed in 1947. Until, Britain divide India based on religion; both Hindus and Muslims were living in harmony in India. However, the enmity started to grow between India and Pakistan after the independence of India. The major unresolved problem for enmity between India and Pakistan is the Kashmir issue. Pakistan still believes that the Muslim dominated Kashmir is part of Pakistan even though at the time of partition Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdulla decided to attach Kashmir as a part of India. The struggle for the ownership of Kashmir is still going on between India and Pakistan and many wars were fought between these two nuclear powers in the past. Many people believe that if India and Pakistan are joined together, they would become the most powerful superpower nation in the world. However, the increasing conflicts between India and Pakistan are ret arding the economic progress not only in India but also in Pakistan. Amidst all these challenging political environments, India achieved tremendous economic growth in the past few decades. According to political analysts, India may become another superpower in the near future itself. This paper analyses how the partition in 1947 shaped modern day India. The principles of India's foreign policy have stood the test of time: a belief in friendly relations with all countries of the world, the resolution of conflicts by peaceful means, the sovereign equality of all states, independence of thought and action as manifested in the principles of Non-alignment, and equity in the conduct of international relations  (India's Foreign Policy - 50 Years of Achievement) India opted for a neutral approach after its independence, instead of polarising towards any of the superpowers of that time. In fact India was a prominent country which worked for the formation of a non-aligned movement (NAM). Ja waharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India worked together with Egyptian leader Abdul Nazar and Yugoslav President Tito for the formation of NAM. This foreign policy helped India to avoid any major struggle with the superpowers. In fact India treated former Soviet Union and America in the same manner, even though some political analysts visualise some close connections between India and USSR in the past. When Britain decided to divide India, their major objective was to prevent India from becoming a global power. The initial decades immediately after the independence of India created a feeling among the rest of the world that Britain succeeded in its mission to prevent India from achieving rapid growth. In 1965 and in 1971, India engaged in a fierce war with Pakistan over the Kashmir issue and the costs of these wars were more than enough for India like a heavily populated country to bear. India faced the two major challenges after its independence; the threat from Pakistan a nd the growing population size. India implemented some family planning measures in order to reduce the rate of population growth. Small family with one of two children maximum was a slogan encouraged in India after the independence. Economists in the 60’s and 70’s warned India that if India fails to control its population growth, economic progress would be

What do subcultural theories have to offer our understanding of youth Essay

What do subcultural theories have to offer our understanding of youth crime - Essay Example You wonder why kids, especially the male gender before 18 years of age already have a bad reputation from school, which the criminal courts can also support. These young people already understand their cultural values and what their society upholds to be morally right and wrong, yet they go against it to prove it wrong. They form independent social structures, in which they set their own rules and conduct activities to satisfy their ambitions. Sub-cultural theories have put forward motives that drive most of the young people into crime and deviance. Lynch (2000) mentioned that crime does not necessarily happen because people have been imperfectly socialized, but instead occur, for they get to be socialized in a deviant group and learn its values. Their formulated values and beliefs are what they use to justify their illegal conduct in the midst of the dominant culture. It is the desire for most people to achieve and live the American dream in their lifetime. Acquiring wealth and living a satisfactory life seems challenging and only few in the society have managed that. Although people can get a good salary, the life standard has gone up increasing the expenses incurred. This puts a barrier between the rich and the poor in the society, which determines their power to access their needs and their position in the society. According to Vito, Maahs and Holmes, the American sub cultural theories stem out of anomie and social disorganisation perspective; focusing on the lower class in the society, and the formation and activities that explain the delinquent subcultures (2007, p. 160). The concept of psychological strain on the lower social group in their state of idleness and poverty, make the people to look for alternative means to sustain their lives. Often, it is possible to see states and countries that have low economic and safety nets than others, which have high crime rates. The chances of economic and socially powerful families

Community Oriented Policing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Community Oriented Policing - Essay Example One major aspect of this approach is the effort to prevent crime rather than just addressing it after the fact. By focusing on the role of police and the community in recognizing factors that lead to crime and resolving those issues rather than just relating to a crime scene, prevention of crime can be the final result. The philosophy behind this system is full-service personalized policing, working with citizens to identify and solve problems (California, 2008). Studies have shown that the main strategies commonly used in the police department-rapid response, reactive arrest, and random patrol-do not necessarily deter crime (OJJDP, 2004). No matter how quickly an officer responds to a crime scene, injury is often caused within seconds and response time has no real benefit in preventing the crime. Reactive arrest, in response to observed and reported crime, should discourage an individual from committing a similar crime in the future, but that has not been the case, especially with the number of juveniles engaged in crime. Reactive arrest has little effect on juvenile crime. The third strategy, random patrol, is not what the community considers the best use of police resources. The chance of apprehending a criminal by chance has not warranted random patrols as a system of crime deterrence. WitNew Approaches to Crime Prevention With the present efforts to include members of a community in the prevention of crime, COPPS is being put into place throughout the United States. With quality contacts between police and citizens, less crime will occur and knowing what causes crime will minimize occurrences of crime. Some of the benefits realized by this innovative system are as follows (OJJDP, 2004; California, 2008): Surveillance of residential neighborhoods by residents themselves can deter crime. Police can gain information from informal interactions with residents. Interaction with residents also improves residents' ability to protect themselves. When the public respects the police and are confident of police protection, likelihood of crime is reduced. Community involvement establishes new public expectations of and measurement standards for police effectiveness. Involvement requires constant flexibility to respond to all emerging issues. It decentralizes police services/operations/management. It shifts focus of police work from individual incidents to addressing problems identified by the community. The main areas of concern that might lead to crime in a community are based on population, age, economic standing, type of housing, community interaction, employment and education. One area in which crime is most likely is in low-income housing complexes. This type of housing has incurred low esteem through its lack of attractive design and proper maintenance. There is a sameness about this type of property that does not encourage pride of place. The people who live in these units are often unemployed and lack specific skills. Depression, drug dependency, and alcoholism are apt to exist because of inability of tenants to raise their standard of living. Anderson (2001) offers Spelman and Eck's model of three components necessary for crime to

Offer and acceptance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Offer and acceptance - Essay Example Similarly, in Partridge v Crittenden, 2 the High Court ruled that there was no violation of the law prohibiting the offering to sell wild birds except those bred in captivity and of the closed-ring specimen despite the advertisement to that effect because it was merely an offer to treat and not a legitimate offer of sale. There are of course, exceptions to this rule as those indicated in such cases as Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co, 3 where the inclusion of the  £1,000 deposit was taken to mean as proof of the serious intent of the advertiser, and Williams v Carwardine, 4 where the advertisement offering reward to any informant in a murder case was held as a general contract with anyone who could provide the information without taking into account the motive of the informant. Thus, there was no initial valid offer by Alf in his advertisement. Neither was there a valid offer/acceptance by Bert when he initially called Alf over the phone considering that he was unsure at that time. Moreover, the agreement between him and Alf for the latter not to sell the computer until Sunday is unenforceable because of the lack of consideration that is an essential element in a contract. In Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co Ltd v Selfridge & Co Ltd, 5 a tyre maker sued a retailer for selling its tyre below the agreed retail price as previously agreed it and its dealers. One of the reasons why the High Court ruled against the plaintiff was that the defendant was not a party to the agreement in issue and there was no consideration flowing from the promisee to the promissor. Also, in Routledge v Grant 6 the Court held that an offer can be revoked despite an agreement to keep the offer for a certain period if no consideration was paid for that agreement. In the case at bar, there was no option money given by Bert to Alf to seal the agreement and make it enforceable. Even if the promise to hold the sale is valid, the new offer, which was valid, made by Bert on Tuesday and its

Nokia Smart Smartphone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nokia Smart Smartphone - Essay Example Nokia Company Nokia is a mobile phone company whose headquarters are based in Finland. The company started in 1865 through innovative skills of an engineer named Fredrik Idestam. The company started from humble beginnings but tremendously grew over the years beating up political and market waves to become the largest mobile phone maker in the world. However, Nokia’s market share has been declining over the years especially in the 21 century due to the emergence of touch screen phones and outstanding Smartphones from rival companies. This is a fact because statistics claim that in 2012, Nokia operated in 150 countries globally, with annual revenues of 30 billion pounds, and with a global market share of 18.0%, and 3.2 % market share in smart phones. More so, Fortune Global 500 claims that the company’s position stood at 274th in 2013 in terms of revenue measurement, an indication that Nokia’s market share is declining by the day. Nevertheless, Nokia is trying hard to improve its products and sales in order to retain its past market share. Among the strategies that the company has put forth is that it has teamed up with Microsoft Corporation in a way to add up strategy on mobile phone innovation and design. This combination has led to the development of Nokia’s windows phones like the Nokia Lumia 920. The innovation of the product was a great development for the company but the brand did not successfully hit the market due to copying by other rival companies. Analysts claim that the reason why Nokia lags behind in terms of innovation is because it lacks adequate design thinking and that it is dependent to its partner Microsoft for innovative designs, which yields to lack of unique models (Hinrichs 2013, p. 11). This is a fact because Nokia has... This paper approves that the device also has a transparent and flexible screen that could be viewed at any angle without light interference and reflections. This feature also applies to diverse customers who deal with diverse tasks in their daily activities especially the outdoor activities. This means that the screen of the Smartphone will not be affected by reflections but rather will have an accurate colour, image contrast, picture quality and above all flexible readability. The screen is a major determiner on customer behaviour while purchasing phones will mean that flexible and readable screen will attract a vast range of customers because customers love the uniqueness of the products. This report makes a conclusion that product designing and creativity means that the company needs to intensively research on appropriate products that aligns with the changing trends because it latest smart phone design Nokia Lumia 525, has outstanding features but still do not possess the required uniqueness compared to other Smartphones. This means that the company’s design team should research and borrow a piece from other leading companies like Apple’s design team whose product designing is unique and different from the rest and above all exactly befits customers’ needs. This seems to be the recommendable way for Nokia who holds a strong brand and outstanding customer loyalty because analysts claim that the company could experience more declines in revenue and market share if necessary innovations do not take place. Therefore, the ball lies on Nokia’s executive team to implement necessary measures that will rejuvenate the company from its current downf all because the company has all the needed resources and capabilities to prosper and become a leader in the industry.

Jose Rizal Essay Example for Free

Jose Rizal Essay As all Filipinos very well know Jose Rizal has written many books like Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo to expose the hardship Filipinos are experiencing during the Spanish Time without fearing for what would happen to his life because of this. He was even exiled in Dapitan because of his writing and during this time he did not stop helping and even taught the villagers there the importance of education and as a doctor cured those who are sick. His intentions were clear, the willingness to help is always there. I think this is the first step in showing the Fiipinos his intention of helping our fellow Filipinos to build a nation. Our Forefathers became aware of the abuses being done in our country because of what Rizal had written therefore awakening the Filipinos knowledge to build a nation not under the influence of any Foreign People but a nation which should be protected and loved by its citizen. The intentions also of the Foreign Leadership that was happening in our country that time were revealed by his writing. Abuses of the soldiers, Friars and other Spanish leaders were exposed to the people and analysing such would be comparing the corruption happening even during those days. Corruption has been a root cause on why a nation suffers. Jose Rizal during his last days made thru to his intention of his love for the Nation so that it could be strong. Sacrificing his life for the Nation who during that time is so afraid and awakening the Katipunan to stand strong against Foreign Colonialism is surely an indication that this is the start of a strong Nation not afraid to face aggression and to love this country which should be governed by its people and showing his undying love by sacrificing himself just to spark its country man, therefore it is my opinion that Rizal is the spark to build a strong nation here in our Country.

Are Automotive Manufacturers more Socially Responsible?

Are Automotive Manufacturers more Socially Responsible? To what extent are car manufacturing firms operating in a more socially responsible manner when designing environmentally friendly cars? Abstract Social responsibility is one of the key differentiators between modern corporations, and is seen by many analysts as an antidote to the past few years trend towards the demonisation of corporate institutions. The recent economic crisis, in particular, has led many observers to argue that corporations that fail to address issues of social responsibility will struggle to survive. However, other observers question whether this phenomenon is anything more than a superficial consumer trend, and whether the world economy in general can seriously contemplate a corporate system in which the profit motive is subservient to the need for corporate social responsibility. This dissertation examines social responsibility in terms of the car manufacturing industry, and looks in particular at the question of whether or not the move towards environmentally friendly cars is anything more than a passing phase in an industry that is extremely sensitive to public opinion. Ultimately, the aim of the disse rtation is to determine whether or not corporate social responsibility within the car manufacturing industry is a genuine change, or whether it is simply a superficial response to a passing public trend. Introduction The concept of corporate social responsibility has been one of the dominant themes of the past decade, with consumer recognition of a corporations social responsibility being increasingly seen as a lucrative phenomenon. In the west, in particular, increasing levels of affluence have led to a trend that has seen more customers show willingness to pay more for products that are designed according to theories of social responsibility., and this shift has been nowhere more apparent than in the automobile manufacturing industry. This trend has inter-cut with a recognition (in some quarters) of the need to ensure a more environmentally-friendly approach to industrial production and consumption, and a number of corporations have secured dramatically enhanced public images through a focus on affordable but socially responsible products. However, critics argue that since the primary aim of these corporations is to increase their profits, the appearance of social responsibility has been more o f a cosmetic change than a substantial alteration of core business practices; many critics believe that corporations have, in most cases, merely become better at packaging their products as a more socially responsible, environmentally friendly alternative. Despite the recent financial crisis, the automobile manufacturing industry remains a bellwether for the global economy, and any genuine global industrial changes regarding social responsibility will likely be evident in the automobile industry at an early stage. This dissertation will examine the behaviour of car manufacturing firms and will ask whether they have genuinely become more socially responsible when designing environmentally friendly cars, or whether this is merely a superficial smokescreen designed to generate improved public exposure without leading to genuine changes in design and production philosophies. In particular, the difference between the industrys approach before and after the onset of the recent economic crisis will be examined, and these differences will be used to determine whether or not the move towards social responsibility represented a genuine change to production systems or was merely an attempt to capture the early twenty-first century zeitgeist. Furthermore, the dissertation will examine the extent to which social responsibility and environmental awareness have affected not only above-the-line (i.e. visible to the public) areas of the industry, but also below-the-line (i.e. internal corporate) systems; the d issertation will argue that firms can only be said to have adopted a greater level of social responsibility if their attempts to tackle this issue extend to below-the-line activities. The dissertation will use a series of core examples in order to determine both the hyperbole (i.e. the claims made to the public) and the core below-the-line changes that may, or in some cases may not, reflect the car manufacturing industrys more socially responsible, environmentally friendly approach to business and production. Literature Review Corporate Social Responsibility Social responsibility has been one of the key growth areas in recent years. Crane et al. (2007) define social responsibility, in the corporate context, as a companys ability to put aside the profit motive in order to perform tasks that have a beneficial effect not on the company itself in terms of capital but in terms of an entirely separate social group (Crane et al., 2007, p. 6). In this context, social responsibility can be seen as something that companies are expected to do unbidden, in much the same way as many people choose to donate their time and volunteer to help charities. In some ways, therefore, social responsibility can be seen as an attempt to anthropomorphise corporations by rendering them indebted to a cultural belief that they should act in a more ethical and moral manner. This is in some ways a cultural corrective to the idea of corporations as solely capitalistic, profit-orientated organisations. May et al. (2007) suggest that corporate social responsibility is a popular construct that seeks to imbue corporations with humanistic traits regardless of whether those traits are present or not (May et al., 2007, p. 118). In order for public recognition of these traits to be tangible, there must be a relative relationship between different corporations, so some must be seen to be exercising a great deal of social responsibility, while other must be seen to be doing very little. This is, in effect, the classic polar relationship between good and bad, and it allows consumers to associate themselves with positive, socially responsible companies purely by making certain purchasing decisions. Both sides therefore have a vested interest in social responsibility: consumers feel good if they reward socially responsible companies with their custom, and can use such purchases as a form of status symbol; corporations, meanwhile, can try to generate a larger, more loyal customer base. While some critics argue that social responsibility is a trend that will wax and wane according to various social and economic factors (May et al., 2007, p. 119), others believe that the emergence of social responsibility as a major business factor in the past decade is in fact a permanent change. Crane et al. note that growing awareness of environmental issues has led many people to recognise the importance of social responsibility (Crane et al., 2007, p. 10), and although the recent economic crisis may have led many to hold back on the spending that they would otherwise have directed towards socially responsible corporations, there still appears to be a broad consensus that social responsibility is one of the most important factors in modern business. Consequently, many companies have sought to strengthen their social policy credentials. Environmental Policy One of the key elements of social responsibility is the environment. For more than twenty years, there have been warnings about the effects of global warming. Many corporations choose to exhibit their social responsibility through one of a number of environmentally friendly policies: Reducing the environmental cost of production distribution. Reducing the environmental cost of consumption. Reducing the environmental cost of disposal. Using more environmentally-friendly materials. Reducing packaging and other superfluous elements of a product. Instigating specific environmentally-friendly technological elements. Funding research and education programs. Carbon and pollution off-setting. All of these options and more are regularly employed by companies that want to emphasise their environmental credentials. Large companies tend to focus on methods that require little more effort than throwing money at the problem, e.g. by funding research or off-setting their carbon emissions. However, some other companies are far more inventive, and genuinely try to reduce their environmental impact. Social Responsibility Aside from the environmental factors noted above, companies have found a number of ways of demonstrating their corporate social responsibility: Funding education programs. Providing services, e.g. transportation for school and disabled groups. Promoting volunteerism among their own workers. Donating money to charities. Working to eliminate abuse in the chain of production. The globalised corporate environment makes it more difficult than ever for companies to hide practices that might be unpopular in their domestic markets. For example, if a company seeks to use cheap labour in third world countries, it can make a short-term impact but will usually be exposed eventually. In other words, companies find it increasingly difficult to hide any non-socially responsible behaviour. The Car Manufacturing Industry The vast majority of manufacturers are global in terms of production facilities. The leading US and Japanese manufacturers, for example, tend to have dozens of factories, with at the top five companies all having at least one factory in each of North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australasia. As such, the industry can be said to be truly global in terms of both customer reach and production. Furthermore, companies often experience great success in non-domestic markets, e.g. Japans Toyota also sells many cars in the US, and Germanys BMW is extremely popular in the UK; the only major exceptions to this rule are two of the three big US companies, General Motors (GM) and Chrysler, both of which have been criticised for their focus on the US market. The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Car Manufacturing Industry All the worlds car manufacturers have in recent years suffered from the global economic downturn. In the US, the big three manufacturers Ford, Chrysler and General Motors (GM) have all come close to bankruptcy, and GM has been forced to file for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Around the world, companies have suffered similar problems, although in most cases not to the extent of the major US companies. In Japan, both Honda and Toyota have suffered heavy losses and have been forced to reconsolidate their core business areas. As a result, the automobile industry has been undergoing a period of immense uncertainty, and this has led many consumers to believe that they can no longer rely on the continued presence of the big names. Apart from the well-publicised problems for the big three US companies GM, Ford and Chrysler, almost every other major car manufacturer around the world has suffered a slump in profits in the past two years, and many have incurred legacy debts during this period that will impact upon their performance for decades to come. Toyota reported a massive $1.7bn loss (Fackler, 2008) and, like most other manufacturers, was forced to re-focus activities on core revenue streams. As one of the key figures in the green car revolution, Toyota had been investing heavily in environmentally-friendly cars, and had been happy to make such investments since it believe there would be massive financial benefits in the long run. However, the financial crisis crippled Toyotas ability to consider the long term implications of its current activities, and forced the company to focus on its core business. As Satoshi Hino notes, Toyota has long been one of the more adventurous companies when it comes to placing substantial industrial bets on future changes in the automobile market, but these have always been backed by strong performances in the companys core activities (Hino, 2005, p. 41). The companys move into electric and hybrid cars seen by many as a key element in the push towards greener automobiles has largely been financed by success in core diesel machines, with the pay-off for this front-end investment expected to arrive between 2010 and 2015. However, with the core business model threatened by double-digit year-on-year sales drops, Toyota was forced in 2009 to consolidate its activities and re-focus on the most profitable elements of its production line. This decision by the company served as dramatic proof that while there was clearly a high degree of confidence in terms of the potential for socially responsible cars to provide a significant pay-off in the medium to long term, this confidence was not strong enough to allow the company to rely on such vehicles during a time of economic crisis. Clearly, therefore, market forces are not yet dictating the need for social responsibility in sufficient numbers, or with sufficient support via purchasing decisions . Research Methodology Research Approach The research will take two key approaches: a questionnaire will be used to conduct primary research into consumer awareness of the question of social responsibility in the car manufacturing industry, and two case studies will be used to determine how two of the worlds biggest manufacturers GM and Toyota deal with this issue. In order to assess the impact of the social responsibility policies of both GM and Toyota, the questionnaires will be designed to measure the impact of such policies (or the lack of them) and the degree to which they change public opinion and have the effect for which they were designed. These questionnaires will be vital in terms of bridging the gap between the theory and reality, and will expose the limitations inherent in this approach. In order to increase the likely response rate, and to comply with ethical considerations regarding privacy, the questionnaires were left anonymous and respondents were told that they could ignore any individual questions that they would prefer not to answer. The secondary research will focus on two case studies, one looking at the leading US car manufacturer (General Motors) and the other looking at the worlds leading car manufacturer, by sales (Toyota). These companies have been chosen for specific reasons. General Motors (GM) has had a difficult economic history over the past two decades, almost filing for bankruptcy in the 1990s before going on to enjoy considerable success with a series of non-environmentally friendly cars (SUVs) while professing to hold social responsibility as a key philosophical point, and then suffering a massive collapse that resulted in the company filing for the fourth largest bankruptcy in US history (see chapter 4). Toyota, meanwhile, has made a name for itself with a series of advanced hybrid cars, but has also suffered during the recent financial crisis (see chapter 5). In other words, GM is seen by many as one of the worlds least socially responsible manufacturers, and Toyota is seen by many as one of the worlds most socially responsible manufacturers. By comparing and contrasting their approaches and fortunes, it should be possible to develop a clear understanding of the extent to which major car manufacturers have been socially responsible in pursuing an environmentally friendly agenda. Research Questions The research is based on the following key questions: To what extent do car manufacturing companies act with a high degree of social responsibility when designing environmentally friendly cars? How important is consumer behaviour to car manufacturers interest in social responsibility? Do consumers drive companies behaviour, or vice versa? What different approaches to the subject of environmentally friendly, socially responsible cars have been taken by different companies? How has the recent economic crisis affected manufacturers interest in social responsibility? Is social responsibility progressing according to narrative trends? Is this a major change to business, or merely a passing trend? Research Limitations Any research project contains inherent limitations. If these limitations are ignored, they do not go away; rather, they linger and negatively impact the reliability of the overall project. Consequently, the best approach is to recognise these limitations from the start and to work to ensure that they are factored out of the equation as much as possible. As Saunders et al. note, its only by recognising the limitations of any research program that the problems that always affect any research project can be brought into the open, addressed and contextualised and, in some cases, turned into positives (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 51). The research limits of this project are as follows: Social responsibility is an inherently subjective matter. Something that is socially responsible in the view of one person may be socially irresponsible in the view of another. Many of the relevant subjects, such as global warming, are not universally recognised. Its therefore important to reflect the fact that there is ongoing debate. There is insufficient time and space to analyse the entire market. Therefore, key examples must be selected for the case studies. As noted in 3.1, the subjects for these case studies were chosen for very specific reasons. Questionnaires must be brief and simple to understand, yet they must also focus on the key points. Persuading respondents to fill in questionnaires can be difficult. All these limitations can be overcome, to various extents. The subjectivity inherent in the research subject is in fact relevant to the continuing social, cultural and political debates regarding the extent to which car companies should, and can, adopt socially responsible roles; some critics argue that this can only be achieved if consumers adopt socially responsible approaches to their purchasing patterns, which will inevitably force corporations to adapt to face this trend. Similarly, the continuing debate over global warming although settled in many peoples view continues to cause debate in many parts of the world. Finally, the limitations of time and space mean that the case study subjects must be analysed extremely closely, and the choices of company must be made carefully. Results Analysis Response 200 questionnaires were sent out. The expected response rate was 40-50%, as per the suggestion by Saunders et al. that any questionnaire-based research project that prompts between a third and a half of targets to respond can be said to have performed averagely (Saunders et al., 2009, p. 102). In the event, 81 questionnaires were returned, representing 40.5%, which is just within the expected range. This gives a statistically relevant sample group. Demographic Information Demographic details are important in research concerning attitudes to consumer activity and the environment, since both of these factors can impact upon an individuals view of these issues. Question 1 concerned the age of the respondents: How old are you? The majority of respondents were in their teens and twenties, with a total of three quarters being under 40. This makes the questionnaire more relevant in terms of analysing the attitudes of younger people. The second question concerned the occupation of the respondents. It was decided to provide broad categories rather than to request specific details. For one thing, this emphasised the confidentiality and privacy of the research, and for another it allowed for easy and effective categorisation of answers: What is your occupation? Around two thirds of the respondents were employed, self-employed or in part-time work, with the rest being students, retired or unemployed. Awareness of Social Responsibility among Car Manufacturers The next question asked respondents if they believed the car manufacturing industry, as a whole, to be socially responsible. A brief explanation was appended to this question, defining social responsibility as an awareness of their impact on society, including the environment, and their efforts to ensure that this impact has a positive rather than a negative effect: How responsible do you think car manufacturers are? An overwhelming majority (67.9%) considered car manufacturers to be either not very or not at all responsible. Breaking these results down according to age and occupation gave the following results: Appreciation of manufacturers social awareness, broken down by age range Clearly, levels of appreciation appear to be at least partly linked to age, with these levels peaking for individuals in their fifties. There are numerous possible reasons for this, including: Media exposure: different age groups are exposed to very different media forms and sources, each of which will likely carry very different stories concerning manufacturers levels of social awareness. Learned behaviour: older respondents will have spent longer living in a time when many of the relevant issues, particularly environmental impact, were not considered. Environmental awareness: some of the answers may be influenced by a lack of belief in the various arguments concerning the environment and, in particular, the car industrys contribution to global warming. Clearly, therefore, awareness of social responsibility is a dynamic factor that reflects a number of different viewpoints, and this factors is by no means viewed the same by different age groups. The clear correlation between age and awareness indicates that manufacturers must ensure that they operate multiple simultaneous social responsibility programs if they are to reach all these groups. However, the next question sought to determine whether or not it was strictly necessary for the manufacturers to try to appeal to everyone, and asked how important social responsibility is to purchasing decisions. First, in terms of the overall response, the result was as follows: How important is a manufacturers social responsibility for you when choosing what car to buy? Almost half (48.1%) claimed that social responsibility was either very or quite important, with just over half (51.9%) claiming that it was not very or not at all important. Given the relatively small sample group for this research project, the difference is small enough to be statistically irrelevant, and broadly indicates a 50-50 split in terms of opinion on this subject. However, looking at the results in terms of an age-related breakdown results in a very different set of results: Importance of social responsibility of manufacturers, by age The data shows a clear depreciation of the importance of social responsibility for older consumers, although there is evidence of an increase for consumers in their 50s and above. In order to determine a link between awareness of social responsibility in the industry and the importance of social responsibility in purchasing decisions, the results from figures 4 and 6 were then combined: Importance, and awareness, of social responsibility in the car manufacturing industry There is clearly an inverse relationship between awareness of social responsibility as a factor in the industry, and belief in the importance of social responsibility. For example, younger people are most likely to believe that social responsibility is an important factor when making purchasing decisions, but are the least appreciative of any efforts that have so far been made. To an extent, this can be seen to be a matter of perception, but theres also clearly a problem for the industry in terms of persuading parts of the consumer base that its intentions are genuine. In order to measure the degree to which various manufacturers have succeeded in their aim of seeming more socially responsible, respondents were next asked whether they thought the industry had become more socially responsible over the past decade: Do you think the car industry has become more socially responsible over the past decade, less socially responsible, or it has stayed mostly the same? The vast majority of respondents believe there has been no real change, strongly suggesting that either the message from the manufacturers has not got through to the public, or that there is a deep level of cynicism in terms of whether the public believe that the rhetoric has translated into genuine action. Finally, respondents were given a range of options and were asked to indicate which they believed were most important in terms of social responsibility. They were asked to tick two or three options, with the aim being to allow them to indicate the elements of corporate social responsibility that were deemed most important: Most important elements of social responsibility Clearly, the vast majority of consumers overwhelmingly equate social responsibility with environmental issues. The only other factor to come close to this in terms of relevance was making donations to charitable causes, which to an extent also involves the environment. Social responsibility is not purely about the environment, and encompasses a range of other activities that can improve society. However, for the consumers canvassed for this research project, environmental issues were by far the most important, and its therefore possible to argue that the environment has overtaken all other elements of social responsibility and has become the single most important issue. Although manufacturers could fight against this perception and attempt to focus attention on other factors, the best approach might be to accept that when it comes to social responsibility, most consumers overwhelmingly focus on the environment. Case Study 1: General Motors (US) Background General Motors (GM) is the largest US car manufacturer, and the second largest in the world (after Toyota) (Trott, 2009). The company relies heavily on four key brands: Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick and GMC. Each of these brands has a distinctive presence in the US market, but critics have argued that GM has lacked focus on the non-US markets, leaving it particularly vulnerable to domestic turmoil and economic volatility. In 1994, GM came close to bankruptcy following a $4.5bn loss, but cost-cutting measures and management changes ensured its survival. The company was one of the key instigators of the huge rise in sales for sports utility vehicles (SUVs) in the 1990s, a trend that was highly lucrative for GM but which resulted in criticism from environmental campaigners. Between 1998 and 2001, GM and Ford vied for the top spot in the US market, primarily through massively increasing sales in the SUV market. However, the downturn which followed the September 11th 2001 attacks saw GM suff er particularly hard, even compared to Ford, with the latter at least having a strong European heartland on which to rely during difficult trading conditions in the US. Nevertheless, GM bounced back and by 2005 was recording strong sales figures and was eyeing major expansion into overseas markets. However, the recent economic crisis virtually crippled GM, as well as its two key domestic rivals, Ford and Chrysler. GM lost $38.7bn in the 2007 fiscal year (Wearden, 2009), and an almost 50% drop in sales. The following year, GM predicted that it would run out of money in mid-2009 without a substantial re-financing program, and called for government help. In November 2008, the company joined with Ford and Chrysler in formally requesting help from the US government in order to stave off bankruptcy. Even in the context of the financial crisis, this move was massive, since it represented the genuine possibility of the USs three major car companies going bust almost simultaneously. Although the US government, under outgoing president George W. Bush, was initially reluctant to provide money at a time when many other businesses also had legitimate claims for government help, in December 2008 a bridging loan was finally offered. Despite numerous attempts to cut costs and reorganise the co mpany over the next six months, in June 2009 GM filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. After Lehman Brothers, Worldcom and Washington Mutual, this was the fourth largest bankruptcy filing in US history. Eventually, on July 10th 2009, the US government helped to finance a new company, NGMCO Inc., that took on the majority of the old GM assets. The old GM changed its name to Motors Liquidation Company, and the new Vehicle Acquisition Holdings company changed its name to General Motors Company, thereby bringing GM back to life. The new version of GM is mostly owned by the US government, while the old GM Motors Liquidation Company continues to go through the process of the bankruptcy filing. Social Responsibility Both the old and the new GM have been involved in programs to emphasise their social responsibility. Since 1996, GM has financed the Safe Kids USA Buckle Up program, designed to encourage children to use seatbelts. The company has also contributed to a consortium that has donated over $1.2bn to fund education for engineering graduates, a scheme that has recently been extended worldwide. GM has also donated more than $200m in the past decade to charitable causes, and has supported both Democratic and Republican presidential candidates often simultaneously. The companys more recent philanthropic activities include a new global aid program (GM, 2009) and a number of smaller, local community projects designed to improve provisions mostly for children in areas surrounding the companys main factories. These projects have, for the most part, been maintained despite the continued financial uncertainty and the chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings that took place in mid-2009. GM has also launched a major program called I Am GM, designed to showcase the companys strong workplace diversity policies. The program involves placing adverts in newspapers and magazines, and on television, in which GM employees from different ethnic backgrounds talk about their pride in the company. As well as reinforcing the idea of GM as an equal opportunities, ethnically diverse employer, the campaign is designed to show how GM works towards engineering a higher degree of diversity in society. Linked to this program is the companys renewed focus on safety, which has seen not only improvements designed to help children in the event of an accident, but also high-profile campaigns to reinforce the companys vehicles in order to make them withstand bigger crashes. The Buckle Up program has been maintained, and GM has expanded this campaign since 2008 by taking the message to schools around the US. The company claims that corporate responsibility is about more than just words its an acknowledgement that our actions shape our reputation (GM, 2009). Environmentally-Friendly Technology During the 1990s, a number of scandals saw the company accused of poor environmental management, including an accusation that sediments have been stored in unsafe conditions. In 2006, GM was one of a number of manufacturers from around the world named in a suit brought by the State of California over the issue of pollution. The case was dismissed a year later, but the damage to GMs reputation had already been done. In 2008, the Political Economy Research Institute (PERI) ranked GM 18th on its list of the USs worst polluters, giving the company a toxic score of 73,248, set against the no. 1 polluter, E.I. du Pont de Nemours, which scored 285,661 (PERI, 2008). Meanwhile, in the same year, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) ranked GM 7th out of the worlds largest car manufacturers Managing Communications | Research Proposal Managing Communications | Research Proposal Taversha O’Connor Consulting Firm Business Profile Gilzene’s Consulting firm was founded in the year 1996 by Mr Desmond Gilzene who taught that the industry was lacking in a proper consulting firm. It is a Jamaican-based consulting organization specializing in business development, analysing existing and start-up businesses, creating solutions to problems, and helping small businesses to develop effective plans for meeting their goals. Our mission is to help people create innovative solutions and make informed choices to improve their lives. We motivate and encourage others to achieve their own personal and professional fulfilment. Our main aim is to cater to addressing our client’s issues in the most effective and efficient manner, we believe that our clients’ success is our success. Our consultants have proven experience in executing different projects in organization in the small business environment in Jamaica, some of such businesses includes; Denise Catering Services, Yanique’s House of Styles, Sherine’s Stocking depot, Jody’s Beauty Salon and many more. We offer our valued service for fifty four hours per week and operate from two branches in the rural and urban environment. Business profile Ramà ³n Fancy wear opens for business in the line of supplying the latest fashion in clothing and shoes. Our mission is to provide the most current and unique clothing from top designers around the world. Ramà ³n Fancy Wear is open for business from Monday to Saturday 9am-6pm. This store is located at 45 King Street Linstead where a total of twenty employees is employed in which five are cashiers; three are maintenance worker, eight sales representatives, two supervisors and two managers. Ramà ³n Fancy Wear provides the latest fashions in men, women and children clothing and footwear. However, with so many other similar businesses in the area it was noticed that the business sales profits are declining. Objectives This project seeks to: To understand how to assess information and knowledge To be able to create strategies to increase personal networking to widen the involvement in the decision-making process To develop communication processes and improve systems relating to information and knowledge Methodology Up on conducting this research, various methods will be used. These methods include; qualitative, quantitative, primary and secondary research methods. A quantitative research is explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematical based methods (in particular statistics). With quantitative research it gives a degree of accuracy and more specific answer can be provided (Muijs, 2011). This method will be used when conducting the questionnaires for this research. This research will also take a qualitative approach. According to Hennink et al (2011), a qualitative research is an approach that allows you to examine people’s experiences in detail, by using a specific set of research methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups discussions, observation, content analysis, visual methods, and life histories or biographies. The main distinctive feature of a qualitative research is that the approach allows you to identify issues from the perspective of your study participants, and understand the meaning and interpretations that they give to behaviour, events or objects. The research will also operate from a secondary method as well. Secondary information consists of sources of data and other information collected by others and archived in some form. These sources include government reports, industry studies, archived data sets, and syndicated information services as well as the traditional books and journals found in libraries and the internet as well. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research. Literature Review Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both the sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods (what is communication, 2004). From a business perspective, effective communication an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the difference between success and failure or profit or loss. It has become clear that effective business communication is critical to the successful operation to modern enterprise. Every business person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective communication; it is the most critical component of total quality management. It has been proven that poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity and eventually leads to anger and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization (Sanchez, 2014). Knowledge has a strong effect on the organization. According to Denning 2009, knowledge is the ideas or understandings which an entity possesses that are used to take effective action to achieve the entity’s goals. Knowledge management is the process through which organizations generate value from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets. Most often, generating value from such assets involves codifying what employees, partners and customers know, and sharing that information among employees, departments and even with other companies in an effort to devise best practices (Levinson, 2014). Improving information management practices is a key focus for many organizations, across both the public and private sectors. This is being driven by a range of factors, including a need to improve the efficiency of business processes, the demands of compliance regulations and the desire to deliver new services (Robertson, 2005). Problem solving and decision-making are important skills for business and life. Problem-solving often involves decision-making, and decision-making is essentially important for management and leadership. There are processes and techniques to improve decision making and the quality of decisions. Problem-solving and decision-making are closely linked, and each requires creativity in identifying and developing options, for which the brainstorming technique is particularly useful. Good decision-making requires a mixture of skills: creative development and identification of options, clarity of judgement firmness of decision, and effective implementation (problem –solving and decision-making, 2010). References what is communication. 2004.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.only-effective-communication-skills.com/what-is-communication.html. [Accessed 15 February 14]. nick sanchez. 2014.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.web.njit.edu/~lipuma/352comproc/comproc.htm. [Accessed 15 February 14]. steve denning. 2009.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.stevedenning.com/knowledgemanagement/what-is-knowledge.aspx. [Accessed 15 February 14]. meridith Levinson. 2014.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.m.cio.com/article/40343/knowledge_management_definition__and_solutions. [Accessed 15 February 14]. james robertson. 2005.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.steptwo.com.au/papers/kmc_effectiveim/index.html. [Accessed 15 February 14]. prolem-solving and decision-making. 2010.n/a. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.businessballs.com/problemsolving.html. [Accessed 15 February 14].

The Philosophy of Religion

The Philosophy of Religion INTRODUCTION Philosophy refers to the study of the meaning of existence, thought, and knowledge (Blackburn, 1996). One prevailing view amongst philosophers is that philosophy is essentially a method of enquiry, a means of understanding the world, and human nature. Within this domain emerged a philosophy of science, a view that the world can be understood through quantification and experimentation, characterised by rigour, control, objectivity, and replication (Krige Dominique, 2003). It has evolved over time, shifting away from an emphasis on theory falsification (scientific realism) towards a requirement for explanation and prediction. Fundamental to science is positivist philosophy, the idea that only phenomena which can be measured and quantified are worthy of scientific inquiry (LeGouis, 1997). Thus, phenomena such a God, spirits, and the ‘afterlife’ aren’t worth studying. Religion refers to a set of commonly held beliefs and customs, concerned with supernatural phenomena , notably the existence of a divinity, god, or higher ‘power’ or ‘entity’ (Lindbeck, 1984; Jones, 2005). It represents a particular world view characterised by faith, spirituality, holiness, doctrine, and reverence, and often shapes a persons entire life, reasoning, and culture. Thus, it generally follows from this that science, and its associated philosophies, are generally incompatible with religion. But what are the precise sources of this tension? SOURCES OF TENSION Origin of Life Where did life come from? Evolutionary theorists, notably Charles Darwin, argued that species evolve over millennia through a process of ‘natural selection’, whereby only the fittest are able to secure mates, reproduce, and hence ensure the survival of their particular genetic footprint: the weak, by contrast are unable to compete, and ultimately become extinct, in a kind of evolutionary ‘dead-end’ (Darwin, 1852, 1869, 1872). Scientists take the view that life may have emerged ‘spontaneously’, through purely accidental but favourable biological conditions, whereby basic molecules notably amino acids combined to form more complex elements, like carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia (Martin Russell, 2002; Hazen, 2005). These biochemical events were triggered accidentally, for example by random cosmic events (e.g. meteorite/comet activity, hot-springs), as the earth formed (Russell, et al, 1988; Fernando Rowe, 2007). Religion offers a completely dif ferent account. God or some other deity, created life (Dawkins, 2006)! For example, in Christianity the earth was created by God, in six days. Scientists completely reject this view however (Dawkins, 2006). In science, notably astronomy and nuclear physics, the earth and universe are the result of a ‘big bang’, whereby all the matter we observe around us today emerged suddenly in a rapidly expanding fiery explosion of matter emanating from a single point (Peacock, 1999). Before the big bang, there was nothing, no time or matter. Although science fails to account for events preceding the ‘big bang’, the notion that it may be ‘created’ by a supernatural entity is regarded with scepticism. Faith A major feature of religious beliefs is faith (Harris, 2006). To have faith is to have trust in an appropriate divinity, notably God, and also to believe in this divinity or deity without question or reason. So, for example, in Judaism there is considerable emphasis on the notion of Emunah (faith), Christians view faith as an essential aspect of worship, while Muslims have faith – known as Iman – in the prophet Mohammed and his teachings. Faith is also an important element in Buddhism, where it is known as Saddha, meaning to have a conviction in or be determined about something. The requirement that one believes in God without asking any questions, or requesting a reason or justification is utter essential in most religions. It means that even when there is evidence to the contrary, such as an apparent failure of God to answer a prayer, the belief and trust in the divinity must be unshaken. In science by contrast, faith is a highly undesirable and hence discouraged conc ept (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). It is virtually non existent amongst scientists. In medical science for example, rather than having faith the effectiveness of a new treatment procedure, there is a universal requirement for evidence-based practice (Tonelli, 2001). Faith is also anathema amongst philosophers who believe in rational thought, the notion that any position or argument must be justified, that is, backed up by reason or evidence (Bonjour, 1998). The truth, rather than been accepted unquestioningly according to religious teachings, is entirely based on the soundness of reasoning or evidence that accompanies it (Kenny, 1986). Doctrine Religion is governed by doctrine, a set of shared beliefs, faiths, teachings, guidelines, and practices, that people adhere to unquestioningly, and which dictate how they live their lives. Thus, for example, religious dogma promoted by the Christian church, such as Christian Trinity (God is one entity simultaneously incorporating the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit) (McGrath, 1987), and virgin birth (the birth of a child by a woman who is a virgin, as in the case of Mary, mother of Jesus) (Spong, 1994) are examples of religious doctrine. By contrast, science and philosophy aren’t governed by any particular doctrine, other than ethical principles which govern research and practice (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Admittedly ‘teachings’, or ‘movement’s do exist in science and philosophy, in the form of ‘schools of thought’ promoting one particular way of understanding phenomena. Good examples in philosophy are rationalism, empiricism, realism an d psychoanalysis. In science, there is for example theory or relativity in physics, or the biopsychosocial model perspective in health, medical, and behavioural science (Borrell-Carrio et al, 2004). However, philosophers and scientists aren’t required to adhere to any particular set of principles. In general, scientific movements gain greater acceptability as the body of supporting empirical evidence expands (Krige Dominique, 2003). However, scientists are free to pick and choose what school of thought they belong to, without violating their scientific of ethical principles. Quantification Positivist philosophy, a movement developed by the great philosopher Auguste Comte (Pickering, 1993), and on which much of modern scientific experimentation is based, promotes the notion that any phenomena which cannot be observed, measured, and quantified, isn’t worthy of scientific study (LeGouis, 1997). This ‘scientific ideology’, which implies that all true knowledge is scientific and quantifiable, is incompatible with religion, in which true knowledge is divine in nature, and based on holy scriptures (Boyer, 2001). Truth in religion is arguably unquantifiable – one cannot measure the existence of God, the effectiveness of prayer, the strength of ones faith, or the presence of the Holy Spirit, for example. Scientists generally avoid investigating religion and religious concepts, much in the same way as they side-step researching issues like UFO citings, and abductions: scientific journals with prioritise research papers on religion are few and far betwe en (Potter, 2005), reflecting the positivist attitude that anything which can’t be measured doesn’t represent the truth. Consider the practice of medical science in the UK. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) is a body set up in England and Wales, in 1999, to determine what medical treatments are considered worthwhile. Decisions are based primarily on empirical (scientific) evidence, and economic cost-effectiveness analyses (Rawlings Culyer, 2004). Alternative therapies with religious underpinnings rarely receive approval, largely due to the lack of empirical verification (Franck et al, 2007). Objectivity In science there is an emphasis on objectivity, an ability to remain unbiased. This relates directly to the scientific requirement for verifiability and replicability. By suppressing personal feelings, biases, preferences, and prejudices, and adhering strictly to standard protocol, the work of one scientist can be evaluated and reproduced by another scientist, completely independently (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Objectivity also has philosophical underpinnings, dating back to the nineteenth century with renowned philosophers like Plato, Gottlob Frege, and Immanuel Kant (Rorty, 1991). The basic philosophy is that the truth, knowledge, and reality must exist independent of the mind. Plato for example made a specific distinction between objective knowledge and personal opinion, the latter denoting an unacceptable subjectivity that does not offer an accurate description of reality (Taylor, 2001). In religion, the emphasis is on getting physically, emotionally, and spiritually proximal to ones divinity, rather than maintaining an intellectual distance (Boyer, 2001). Indeed, people are encouraged to wholly immerse themselves in their religions, such that it dictates their entire lifestyle (Boyer, 2001). Thus, the distinction between religion and culture often becomes blurred, such that a religion (e.g. Judaism) becomes highly intertwined with culture (e.g. being an Israeli) (Norris Inglehart, 2007). Religion is generally ingrained in a person’s personal belief system. Thus, whereas a scientist tries to separate his personal views from scientific knowledge, in religion, personal opinions and religious teachings merge. Authority Whereas in most religions authority is solely and ultimately in the hands of a transcendent and supernatural deity, God, or divinity, in science, scientists themselves are their own authority. They are answerable to no-one (other than the particular ethical standards of the professional bodies to which they belong), and may publish their findings at will, helping to expand, and shape, knowledge, reasoning, and general philosophy in their particular field. For this reason, scientists (especially medical doctors) are often accused of ‘playing God’ by religious activists or sympathisers (Hayles, 1999; Stock, 2002), especially with regards to issues like abortion, cloning, and morality. This is known as the transhumanism and hubris argument (Fukuyama, 2004). Philosophers are also their own authority. They take credit and criticism for and whatever philosophy they advocate. Thus, the likes of Plato, Kant, and other greater philosophers are their own authority. In religion by contrast, God or some other deity is the one sole authority, and all worshipers are ultimately answerable to this divinity (Lindbeck, 1984). Religious leaders, such as Imams, Priests, Vicars, and Buddha’s, are merely ‘messengers’ whose primary role is to spread religious teachings: they are ultimately answerable to God, any divine authority they have is extremely limited. So, for example, it can be argued that a Pentecostal priest who purports to execute miracles on particular members of his congregation is in fact merely acting on behalf of God, serving as a ‘channel’ through which God performs his miracles. JUSTIFICATION Are the tensions between religion, science, and philosophy justified? Several arguments are presented below which suggest that the answer to this question is an unequivocal ‘no’. Firstly, the idea promoted by positivist philosophy, and hence modern day science, that religion and religious subjects can’t be studied scientifically is incorrect. Although religious concepts (e.g. God, faith, sin, worship) are generally unobservable, and hence difficult to quantify, scientists do study religion, using scientific methods (e.g. Smith et al, 2003; Myers, 2007). Furthermore, religion offers quantifiable and testable predictions that make it amenable to scientific research. For example, the notion that God exists and/or answers ones prayers can easily be measured and evaluated scientifically (Dawkins, 2006). Secondly, the supposed tension between religion and science appears odd given that science actually emerged from amongst Christians, who were seeking new ways of seekin g out the ‘truth’ about the world, and humanity (Jaki, 1996). Thus, the very scientists and philosophers who embraced notions such as quantification, objectivity, and experimentation were themselves God worshipers, imbued with faith, and adhering strictly to religious doctrine (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Thus, despite their devotion to scriptures as their main source of truth about reality, many religions allow for the application of scientific theories to everyday problems (Migliore, 2004). So, for example, there is no apparent contradiction if a clergy advices a sick member of his congregation to seek medical treatment, in addition to relying on their faith and asking for divine intervention. Thirdly, science, philosophy, and religion, do actually converge in certain areas, notably metaphysics and cosmology. Metaphysics refers to a philosophical movement concerned with understanding the meaning of reality, existence, and the world (Lowe, 2002; Loux, 2006). It addresses issues beyond the physical world, including questions such as ‘what is reality’, ‘why are we here?’, ‘does God exist’, and ‘Is there a soul?’ Metaphysicists have historically considered these legitimate scientific questions, especially prior to the eighteenth century before the development of modern scientific concepts such as empiricism, and quantification (Lowe, 2002). Yet, it is these very questions that religion and religious teachings are often concerned with. One of the best known fields of metaphysics is theology, the study of God (Migliore, 2004)! The word ‘theology’ means the ‘study of divine things’. In Europe, the Chris tian church, notably the Protestant Church and Roman Catholic Church trains their ministers in Christian theology, for example in Seminaries, or even universities (Woods, 2005). Thus, this begs the question that if religion and science are so incompatible, why would religions, for example Christianity, support academic study and scientific inquiry amongst its clergy? All in all it can be argued that there is no qualitative distinction between religion, and the philosophy of metaphysics (Hazen, 2005). Granted, the answers provided by each perspective may differ wildly. Indeed, certain questions (e.g. ‘does God exist?’) may be inappropriate in many religions. Nevertheless, the overlap between religion, theology, and metaphysics seems obvious (Hazen, 2005). Cosmology refers to the scientific (mathematical) study of the universe, and the role of humanity in it (Hawley Katerine, 1998). Thus, by definition, cosmology and religion are concerned with the same subject matter. C osmology appears to occupy a position between religion and modern science, posing arguments about the relationship between God, humanity, and the physical universe. A sub-branch of cosmology, known as religious cosmology specifically aims at explaining and understanding the universe based, in part, on religious teachings (Hetherington, 1993). Many religious cosmologists accept that God created the universe, but yet recognize the findings of modern science, notably Astrophysics, that the universe was created in the ‘Big Bang’ for example. These two positions aren’t necessarily incompatible; God may be considered to have created the Big Bang! CONCLUSION This essay considers the tension between religion, science, and philosophy, and whether this conflict is justified. Substantial differences exist between religion and science/philosophy: for example, religious notions like faith, God, and unquestioning adherence, are generally incompatible with classic scientific tenets. Similarly, traditional scientific requirements like quantification, and philosophical concepts such as rationality and empiricism, don’t ‘fit’ well with religious practice. 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